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McDonnell Douglas BAe AV-8B Harrier II

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Message par Trish Mar 18 Sep 2012, 22:31

A government statement gave the following systems as being cleared for the GR9 as of November 2010, just before its retirement :

Recce/targetting pods: DJRP, Sniper and TIALD

Air-to-air: AIM-9L Sidewinder

Bombs: Paveway II/III/IV, Enhanced Paveway II/II+, 540 lb and 1000 lb iron bombs

Air-to-ground: CRV-7 rocket pod, AGM-65 Maverick

The Litening 3 and RAPTOR pods,

ASRAAM,

Enhanced Paveway III,

ALARM, Brimstone and Storm Shadow were not qualified for use on the GR9.

A GR9 in Afghanistan typically carried a DJRP, a Sniper pod, two Paveway IV and two of either CRV-7, Paveway IV or Maverick.
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Bibliography

Eden, Paul, ed. "McDonnell Douglas/BAe Harrier II". The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London, UK: Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.

Elliot, Simon (18 September 1990). "Harrier - The Next 30 Years". Flight International: 50–57. Retrieved 26 August 2012.

House of Commons: Defence Committee. Delivering front line capability to the RAF: third report of session 2005-06; report, together with formal minutes, oral and written evidence. The Stationery Office, 2006. ISBN 0-215026-94-2.

Jenkins, Dennis R.. Boeing / BAe Harrier. Warbird Tech. 21. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 1998. ISBN 1-58007-014-0.

Nordeen, Lon O. Harrier II, Validating V/STOL. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2006. ISBN 1-59114-536-8.

Orchard, Adrian; James Barrington. Joint Force Harrier. Penguin, 2008. ISBN 0-14188-975-6.

Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide To The Ships And Aircraft Of The U.S. Fleet. Naval Institute Press, 2005. ISBN ISBN 1-59114-685-2.

Walker, Karen (19 July 1986). "V/STOL Comes of Age". Flight International: 23–25. Retrieved 22 July 2011.

Wilson, Stewart. BAe/McDonnell Douglas Harrier. Airlife, 2000. ISBN 1-84037-218-4.
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McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II

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The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) AV-8B Harrier II is a second-generation vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) ground-attack aircraft.

An Anglo-American development of the British Hawker Siddeley Harrier, the Harrier II is the final member of the Harrier family that started with the Hawker Siddeley P.1127 in the early 1960s.

The AV-8B is primarily used for light attack or multi-role missions, and is typically operated from small aircraft carriers, large amphibious assault ships and simple forward operating bases.

The AV-8B is used by the United States Marine Corps (USMC), Spanish Navy and Italian Navy. A variant of the AV-8B, the British Aerospace Harrier II was developed for the British military. The TAV-8B is a dedicated two-seat trainer version.

The Harrier II and other models of the Harrier family have been called "Jump Jets".

The AV-8B was extensively redesigned by McDonnell Douglas from the earlier AV-8A/C Harrier. It has a new wing, an elevated cockpit, a redesigned fuselage, and other structural and aerodynamic refinements.

The number of hardpoints was increased from five to seven. Later upgrades, which resulted in the AV-8B(NA) and AV-8B Harrier II Plus, added radar and night-attack capabilities.

British Aerospace joined the improved Harrier project as partner in 1981. Since corporate mergers in the 1990s, Boeing and BAE Systems have jointly supported the program.

AV-8Bs have participated in numerous conflicts, providing close air support for ground troops and performing armed reconnaissance, proving themselves versatile assets.

US Army General Norman Schwarzkopf named the USMC Harrier as one of the seven most important weapons of the Gulf War.

The aircraft took part in combat during the Iraq War beginning in 2003.

The Harrier II has served in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan since 2001, and was used in Operation Odyssey Dawn in Libya in 2011.

Italian and Spanish Harrier IIs participated in overseas conflicts, in conjunction with NATO coalitions.

American and Italian AV-8Bs are expected to be replaced by the Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning II.

Origins

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as the first-generation Harriers entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and United States Marine Corps (USMC), it became increasingly apparent that they were handicapped in range and payload.

The AV-8A, the American designation for the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, in STOL configuration, could only carry less than half the 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) payload of the A-4 over a radius smaller than that of the diminutive aircraft.

To address this issue, in 1973 Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas began joint development of a more capable version of the Harrier.

Early efforts concentrated on an improved Pegasus engine, designated Pegasus 15, which was undergoing testing by Bristol Siddeley.

The engine was more powerful but had a diameter 2.75 inches (70 mm) larger, too big to readily fit into the Harrier.

A joint American and British team completed a project document defining an Advanced Harrier with the Pegasus 15 engine in December 1973.

The Advanced Harrier was intended to replace original RAF and USMC Harriers, as well as the latter's A-4

The aim of the Advanced Harrier was to double the AV-8's payload and range capabilities, and was therefore unofficially named "AV-16".

The British government pulled out of the project in March 1975 due to decreased defense funding, rising costs, and a small 60-aircraft requirement by the RAF.

The US was unwilling to fund development by itself, and ended the project later that year.


The two companies took different paths toward an enhanced Harrier.

Hawker Siddeley focused on a new larger wing that could be retrofitted to existing operational aircraft, while McDonnell Douglas independently undertook a less ambitious, though still expensive, project catering to the needs of the US military.

Using knowledge gleaned from the AV-16 effort, though dropping some items—such as the larger Rolls-Royce Pegasus engine—McDonnell Douglas kept the basic structure and engine for an aircraft tailored for the USMC.

Designing and testing

The plan for Harrier II development was authorized by the US Department of Defense (DoD) in 1976.

The US Navy, which traditionally procures military aircraft for the Marine Corps, insisted that the new design be verified with flight testing.

To do this, McDonnell Douglas modified two AV-8As with new wings, modified intakes, redesigned exhaust nozzles, and other aerodynamic refinements; the modified forward fuselage and cockpit were not incorporated on these prototypes.

Designated YAV-8B, the first converted aircraft flew on 9 November 1978, followed by the second on 19 February 1979; the second aircraft crashed in November due to engine flameout.

These modified AV-8s were flight-tested during 1978 and 1979.

Test results showed greater than expected drag, somewhat hampering the aircraft's maximum speed. Refinements to the aerodynamic profile yielded little improvement.

Positive results in other areas, including payload, range and V/STOL performance, led to the award of a development contract in 1979; the contract called for 12 aircraft in the first batch, and a further 324 thereafter.

In 1981, the DoD included the Harrier II in its annual budget and five-year defense plan despite attempts within the DoD and United States Navy (USN) to terminate the program between 1978 and 1980.

The Navy declined to participate in the procurement, citing the limited range and payload compared with conventional aircraft.

The USMC planned to order 336 aircraft at that time.

In August 1981, the program received a boost when British Aerospace (BAe) and McDonnell Douglas (MDC) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), signaling the UK's re-entry into the program.

Under the agreement, BAe was relegated to the position of a subcontractor, instead of the full partner status that would have been the case had the UK not left the program.

Consequently, the company received, in man-hours, 40 percent of the airframe work-share.

Aircraft production would occur at McDonnell Douglas' facilities in St. Louis, Missouri, and manufacturing by BAe would take place at their Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey, England.

Meanwhile, 75 percent work-share for the engine went to Rolls-Royce with the remaining 25 percent taken up by Pratt & Whitney.

Rolls-Royce had previously absorbed Bristol Siddeley.
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The Harrier Jump Jet has the distinction of being the only powered-lift aircraft in the free world to achieve operational status and to have flown in combat.

This V/STOL aircraft can take-off and land vertically or utilize very short runways by directing its four exhaust nozzles towards the ground.

Transition to forward flight is achieved by rotating these nozzles into a horizontal position. Powered-lift vehicles have certain advantages over conventional strike fighters.

Their V/STOL capabilities allow for safer carrier operations, smaller carrier size, and quick reaction time for troop support.

Moreover, they are not dependent on vulnerable land-based runways.

The AV-8A Harrier first entered service in the British Royal Air Force (RAF) during 1969, and the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) in 1971.

The AV-8B was a redesign to achieve improved payload capacity, range, and accuracy.

This modified design first entered service with the USMC and RAF in 1985.

The success and unique capabilities of the Harrier has prompted the design of a powered-lift version of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF).

The flowfield for the Harrier near the ground during low-speed or hover flight operations is very complex and time-dependent. A sketch of this flowfield is shown. Warm air from the fan is exhausted from the front nozzles, while a hot air/fuel mixture from the engine is exhausted from the rear nozzles.

These jets strike the ground and move out radially forming a ground jet-flow.

The ambient freestream, due to low-speed forward flight or - headwind during hover, opposes the jet-flow.

This interaction causes the flow to separate and form a ground vortex.

The multiple jets also interact with each other near the ground and form an upwash or jet fountain, which strikes the underside of the fuselage.

If the aircraft is sufficiently close to the ground, the inlet can ingest ground debris and hot gases from the fountain and ground vortex.

This Hot Gas Ingestion (HGI) can cause a sudden loss of thrust (powered lift), and the vehicle may crash.

The high-speed jet flow along the ground can also entrain the ambient flow, resulting in a low pressure region underneath the vehicle.

The accompanied loss of lift is referred to as the suckdown effect.

The ground vortex may also be highly unsteady, dramatically changing its size and position with time at low frequencies, e.g., 1 Hz.

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Four full-scale development (FSD) aircraft were constructed.

The first of these (BuNo 161396), used mainly for testing performance and handling qualities, took its maiden flight on 5 November 1981.

The second and third FSD aircraft, which introduced wing leading edge root extensions (LERX) to meet RAF requirements, as well as modifications to the engine intakes, first flew in April the following year, and the fourth in January 1984.

The first production AV-8B was delivered to the USMC's training squadron VMAT-203 at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point (MCAS Cherry Point) on 12 December 1983, and officially handed over one month later.

The last of the initial batch of twelve was delivered in January 1985 to the front-line squadron VMA-331.

The engine used for these aircraft was the F402-RR-404A, with 21,450 lb (95.4 kN) of thrust; aircraft from 1990 onwards received upgraded engines.
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Further developments

During the initial pilot conversion course, it became apparent that the AV-8B exhibited different flight characteristics from the AV-8A, and that the use of a digital cockpit instead of the analog cockpit of the TAV-8A also necessitated additional training.

Consequently, in 1984, money for eight AV-8Bs was diverted to the development of a two-seat TAV-8B dedicated trainer.

The first of the twenty-eight TAV-8Bs eventually procured had its maiden flight on 21 October 1986.

This aircraft was delivered to VMAT-203 on 24 July 1987.

The TAV-8B was also ordered by Italy and Spain.

In 1985, McDonnell Douglas commenced work on a night-attack variant of the Harrier II; the company and BAe had been encouraged to continue development by export interest from Brazil, Japan and Italy.

The USMC ordered 66 AV-8B(NA)s.

The 87th production AV-8B therefore became the first Harrier II to be modified with equipment for night attacks, and rolled off the MDC production line in June 1987.

Flight tests proved successful and the night attack capability was validated. In September 1989, the first AV-8B(NA) was delivered to the Marine Corps.

An equivalent version to the AV-8B(NA) also served with the RAF under the designation GR Mk.7; earlier GR Mk.5 aircraft were subsequently upgraded to GR Mk. 7 standards.

In June 1987, as a private venture, BAe, McDonnell Douglas and Smiths Industries signed an MoU for the development of what was to become the AV-8B Plus.

This was endorsed by the USMC, and, after much consideration, the Spanish and Italian navies developed a joint requirement for a fleet of air-defense Harriers.

The United States, Spain and Italy signed an MoU in September 1990 to define the responsibilities of the three countries and establish a Joint Program Office to manage the program.

On 30 November 1990, the US Navy, acting as an agent for the three participating countries, awarded McDonnell Douglas the contract to develop the improved Harrier.

This was followed by an order from the USMC in December 1990, which included 30 new aircraft, as well as 72 rebuilt aircraft.

The Italians ordered 16 Harrier II Plus and two twin-seat TAV-8B aircraft, while the Spaniards signed a contract for eight aircraft.

Production of the AV-8B Harrier II Plus would be conducted, in addition to McDonnell Douglas' plant, at CASA's facility in Seville, Spain, and Alenia's production plant in Turin, Italy.

The UK also participated in the program by manufacturing components for the AV-8B.
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Message par Trish Mer 19 Sep 2012, 16:33

Authorization for production was given on 3 June 1992.

The maiden flight of the prototype (164129) took place on 22 September, marking the start of a successful flight test program.

The first production aircraft was delivered to St. Louis and, on 17 March 1993, made its first flight.

Deliveries of new aircraft took place from April 1993 to 1995

At the same time, the plans to remanufacture existing AV-8Bs to the Plus standard proceeded.

The Defense Acquisition Board, on 11 March 1994, approved the program, which initially involved 70 aircraft, with four converted in financial year 1994.

The program aimed to use new and refurbished components to rebuild aircraft at a lower cost than new-built aircraft.

Conversion began in April 1994, and the first aircraft was delivered to the USMC in January 1996.

Despite the apparent advantages of the program, in March 1996 the General Accounting Office stated that it was more financially sound to buy the Harrier II Plus outright under a procurement program than to remanufacture existing AV-8Bs.

The US Navy estimated the cost for remanufacture of each aircraft to be $23–30 million, instead of $30 million for each new-built aircraft; the GAO estimated the cost per new aircraft at $24 million.

Nevertheless, the program continued, and in 2003, the 72nd and last remanufactured AV-8B was delivered to the USMC.

Spain also participated in the program, with the delivery of its last refurbished aircraft occurring in December 2003, which marked the end of the AV-8B's production.

By the 1990s McDonnell Douglas had merged with Boeing, and BAe was merged into BAE Systems; the two companies together went on to manage the family into the early 21st century.

Between 1969 and 2003, 824 Harrier variants were delivered. While manufacture of new-built Harriers concluded in 1997, the last remanufactured aircraft (in Harrier II Plus configuration) was delivered to Spain in December 2003, ending the Harrier production line.

In 2001, Flight International reported that Taiwan might choose to meet its requirement for STOVL aircraft by purchasing AV-8Bs, outfitted with the F-16 Fighting Falcon's APG-66 radar; this would have allowed the production line to stay open beyond 2005.

Despite the possibility of leasing AV-8Bs,[40] interest in the aircraft waned as the country switched its intentions to procuring the F-35.
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Message par Trish Mer 19 Sep 2012, 16:34

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Overview

The AV-8B Harrier II is a subsonic attack aircraft.

It retains the basic layout of the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, with horizontal stabilizers and shoulder-mounted wings featuring prominent anhedral.

The aircraft is powered by a single Rolls-Royce Pegasus turbofan engine; the Pegasus's two intakes and four synchronized vectorable nozzles are located close to the turbine; two nozzles are near the forward, cold end of the engine and two nozzles are near the rear, hot end of the engine.

This arrangement contrasts with most fixed-wing aircraft, which have their engine nozzles at the rear.

The Harrier II also has smaller valve-controlled nozzles in the nose, tail and wingtips to provide control at low airspeeds.

The AV-8B is equipped with one centerline and six wing hardpoints (up from five in total on the Hawker Siddeley Harrier) for carrying weapons and external fuel tanks, along with two fuselage stations for a 25 mm GAU-12 cannon and ammunition pack

The British Aerospace Harrier II, a variant tailored to the RAF, uses different avionics, and has one additional missile pylon on each wing.

The aircraft incorporates numerous structural and aerodynamic changes. MDC engineers designed a new, longer one-piece supercritical wing, which improves cruise performance by delaying drag rise and increasing lift-to-drag ratio.

Made of carbon-fiber composites, the wing is thicker, has a larger aspect ratio, reduced sweep, and an area increased to 230 square feet (21.40 m2).

The lighter wing has a high-lift configuration, employing flaps that automatically deploy during aircraft maneuvers, and drooped ailerons.

The wing, when used in concert with leading-edge root extension (LERX, which are extensions to the root of the wing's leading-edge), allows for a 6,700-pound (3,035 kg) increase in payload compared with the first-generation Harriers after a 1,000 ft (300 m) takeoff roll.

The Harrier II was the first combat aircraft to employ composite materials extensively; they are used on the wings, rudder, flaps, nose, forward fuselage and empennage.

In total, 26 percent of the aircraft's structure is made of composites, reducing the weight of the aircraft by 480 lb (217 kg) compared with a conventional metal structure.

The Harrier II retains the tandem undercarriage layout of the first-generation Harriers, although the outriggers were moved from the wingtip to mid-span for a tighter turning radius when taxiing.

The engine intakes are bigger, and have a revised inlet. Underneath the fuselage centerline McDonnell Douglas added lift-improvement devices, which capture the reflected engine exhaust, equivalent to 1,200 lb (544 kg) of lift.
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